## HISTORY ### VENUS 1986-1997 The project starts with the creation of the VENUS model by Klaus WERNER, during a postdoc stay at the Brookhaven National Laboratory between 1986 and 1989. This was one of the first codes able to simulate relativistic (with CMS energies beyond 10 AGeV) proton-proton and heavy-ion collisions, the latter ones being realized at the time at the SPS accelerator at CERN. VENUS was already using the concept of parallel scatterings in the Gribov-Regge framework, but the scatterings were considered to be completely "soft", sufficient for the moderately high SPS energies. ### NEXUS 1997-2004 In the early 2000s, the RHIC collider in Brookhaven started operation, with Au+Au collisions at a CMS energy of 200 AGeV. This made it necessary (in the late 90s) to reconsider the VENUS project in order to implement "hard processes". It was decided to fuse the QGSJET code of Sergej OSTAPCHENKO and the VENUS code of Klaus WERNER, with the help of several Ph.D. students (Hajo DRESCHER, Michael HLADIK, Tanguy PIEROG), to have a consistent description of soft and hard scatterings, and therefore an up-to-date model for RHIC simulations, named NEXUS. ### EPOS1 2004-2012 In the NEXUS approach, it was clear from the beginning that a simple approach with just elementary Pomerons (I-diagrams) will lead to contradictions and it was decided to explicitly implement as well Y-diagrams, which amounts to splitting a parton ladder into two. But then one also needs to allow for splitting the two legs again, and so on. Unfortunately, such a cascade of splittings is impossible to do in a framework with rigorous energy conservation. Two possible solution emerged, and were further developed around 2006 as EPOS (keeping full energy conservation, but treating Y diagrams in an effective way), and as QGSJETII (giving up energy conservation, but summing up the splittings to infinite order). In EPOS, in addition to the multiple Pomeron exchanges, referred to as primary scatterings happening at t=0, secondary scatterings were added, treating the reinteractions of the particles produced initially. In 2007, the core-corona picture was introduced (Klaus WERNER), which amounts to identifying a core part, which then evolves macroscopically as a fluid. Those particles which do not participate in the core are called corona particles. In EPOS1, the core expansion was simply parameterized, with a flow put in by hand. EPOS1 turned out to b quite successful to describe the first LHC results (with the code being constructed and tuned before LHC). Around 2012, EPOS LHC was created (Tanguy PIEROG, K. Werner), which is essentially the last EPOS1 version (1.99) with some finetuning compared to LHC results from run 1.{" "} ### EPOS2 2010-2013 In EPOS2 (I. KARPENKO, T. PIEROG, and K. WERNER), an efficient code for solving the hydrodynamic equations in 3+1 dimensions was implemented, including the conservation of baryon number, strangeness, and electric charge, employing a realistic equation-of-state, compatible with lattice gauge results, using a complete hadron resonance table, making our calculations compatible with the results from statistical models. Nonlinear effects (parton ladder fusions) were treated by simply adding by hand a term x^epsilon to the Pomeron amplitudes, with x being an energy fraction (epsilon method). ### EPOS3 2013-2017 In EPOS3 (B. GUIOT, I. KARPENKO, T. PIEROG, and K. WERNER), a 3D+1 viscous hydrodynamical evolution was implemented, starting from flux tube initial conditions, being generated in the Gribov-Regge multiple scattering framework. An individual scattering is referred to as Pomeron, identified with a parton ladder, eventually showing up as flux tubes (or strings). Each parton ladder is composed of a pQCD hard process, plus initial and final state linear parton emission. Klaus WERNER introduced a new way to deal with nonlinear effects, namely by associating a saturation scale Q_s to each parton ladder (Q_s method). Tanguy PIEROG introduced a smart way to combine the epsilon and the Q_s method, by first using epsilon to define an effective Pomeron amplitude G_eff, and then making the link to the QCD ladder via G_eff = k*G_QCD(Q_s), where the momentum dependence of k should be chosen such that factorization is assured (which turned out to be difficult). Finally, Benjamin GUIOT made major contributions concerning the implementation of heavy flavor.